When it comes to appearances, norms (rules of society) evolve according to periods and cultures.
Styles that were once considered “masculine” or “feminine” can be inverted and evolve over periods of time and from culture to culture.
Take a look at these images! You’ll notice that both the man and woman are wearing make-up and have groomed eyebrows. The male statue has long hair.
Indeed, grooming and make-up aren’t just for women.
In the Arab world, men in the 16th century used vegetable gums to remove hair. Whereas, in the West, hair was a sign of strength and virility, so hair removal was reserved for women!
Discover here some toiletry items from the Mediterranean region, which could be used by both women and men.
Gender norms vary across cultures and evolve over time. Grooming and make-up were never exclusive to women.
There were those who didn’t always seek to please others in the past…
And there’s a demeaning term to refer to them: “virago” (from the Latin “vir”, meaning man). A virago is a woman who has qualities that society has typically considered masculine, such as strength and courage.
In Greek mythology, for example, the Amazons carry weapons and fight! But these women warriors were looked down upon for their combative qualities. In works by ancient authors, they symbolise chaos. Their death, therefore, restores order and harmony…
There is a long way to go before women are free of historical stereotypes, but as for the Amazons, they’ve become heroines of the big screen!
Characteristics deemed ‘masculine’ or ‘feminine’ have been socially constructed. Despite gender stereotypes, women have always shown strength and courage throughout history.
Cleopatra wasn’t the only woman to reign over Egypt! The first female pharaoh was Neferusobek.
Her statue has suffered the ravages of time but there are clues about how the pharaoh chose to be represented. She wears:
By adopting insignia previously reserved for men, Neferusobek sought to show that she was their equal.
The first female pharaoh, Neferusobek, combined masculine and feminine clothing and insignia to give legitimacy to her power.
For instance, you would be wrong to think that there were no women in power before the 20th century. Female leaders can be found in the highest positions of responsibility everywhere and in every period of history! How about a brief overview?
All of these powerful women have inspired numerous works of art, including music and films!
Here’s one of our favourite examples: Cleopatra!
Here’s an excerpt from Cleopatra (1963), directed by Joseph L. Mankiewicz.
Many princesses and queens have held the reins of government — while some have been forgotten, others have inspired popular culture.
Women twiddling their thumbs at home? The idea doesn’t seem absurd. In many societies women were placed under the protection of their husbands. It was therefore the husband who would work outside the home to feed the family.
In art, women are often depicted partaking in indoor activities.
But it is a clichéd view to infer that women didn’t work.
Despite the lack of representations, women have always worked, whether inside or outside the home.
In contrast to all these virtuous mythological figures, Medea embodies much darker aspects. This woman turned Machiavellian to get revenge on her unfaithful husband, even going as far as killing her own children.
The Greek playwright Euripides recounts this myth in his tragedy titled “Medea.” This story has indeed travelled widely, as it can be found, for example, in Egyptian papyri!
The figure of Medea has been revisited many times in literature and the arts, shedding light on the multiple facets of the character: sometimes a ruthless murderer, other times a wounded wife, and at times a learned woman and sorceress.
While women have been depicted extensively as mothers and wives, it’s now time to discover other representations and their clichés!
The mythological figure of Medea is that of a Machiavellian woman who went as far as killing her own children.
Isis (her again!) has another hat that she’s not the only one to wear — that of the maternal figure.
Historically, women have frequently been associated with the portrayal of a maternal figure. This kind of image of mother and child transcends eras, geographical regions and religions.
Let’s take a look at some examples!
Representations of a maternal figure looking after her child have transcended geographical boundaries and eras.
Venerated in ancient Egypt, she is (among other things!) the goddess of fertility.
Amulets in her honour were worn to protect pregnant women from the risk of miscarriage and death in childbirth. Pregnancy was, until recently, an extremely dangerous stage in a woman’s life so it was better to have the gods on your side!
This deity is so important that she can be found throughout the Mediterranean basin!
She can be recognised on this altar from ancient Rome by the musical instrument in her hand. It is a sistrum, used in Egypt during ceremonies in her honour.
In antiquity, Isis, the Egyptian goddess of fertility, was revered as far away as Rome.
Although out of reach for vestal virgins, love gives many deities their purpose! But it doesn’t mean the same thing to all of them…
Discover this example featuring two myths about Ishtar & Isis!
Ishtar: the goddess of sexual love, she had multiple amorous conquests. When she attempted to seduce Gilgamesh, he resisted her charms. This rejection sent her into a blind fury. She sends a furious bull against him, and her vengeance then falls upon thousands of innocents.
Isis: the goddess of marital love. Her husband Osiris was killed and cut into pieces by his own brother, who scattered them around the world. Isis then left to find them and managed to put her husband’s body back together. It was then wrapped in a shroud, like a mummy. What a devoted wife! Isis is depicted here as she safeguards Osiris, who is wrapped in a shroud.
The deities associated with love can represent sexual love, like Ishtar, or marital love, like Isis.
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